Hawaii may be paradise, but like the Caribbean Sea, hurricanes are part of its history. The yacht Esprit, In fact, in nearly 150 years, only three hurricanes have reached landfall in Hawaii. Dr.Knabb, also a former deputy director at NOAA's Central Pacific Hurricane Center in Honolulu, points out thatthere is no meteorological reason why the core of a major hurricane can't directly hit Honolulu, resulting in destructive storm surge flooding, wind damage, and rainfall flooding affecting a metro population (minus tourists) of just under 400,000. The costliest hurricane in Hawaii's history,Hurricane Iniki, originated in the eastern Pacific as Tropical Depression Eighteen-E on Sept. 5, 1992. [43][44] Tropical cyclone records were not kept before the 1950s. Part of the reason this doesn't happen that often is just geography. August 1958: On August 7, a tropical storm seemed to rapidly appear directly off the coast of Hilo. Any south or southwest wind aloft would steer a hurricane toward the island chain. 1800s. No further records are available, but extrapolation of its forward movement predicted that it would make landfall on the southern coast of the, August 9, 1871: Indigenous newspapers record a major category 3 hurricane causing significant damage across the islands of, November 1874: In November, a possible tropical cyclone may have dropped over 20 inches (510mm) of rain on, December 190203: A low-pressure system (known later as "The Froc Cyclone") that took a path similar to that of a tropical cyclone, passed through, October 1906: In October a tropical cyclone passed about 60 miles (97km) south of, November 1906: 90 miles (140km) south of Honolulu on November 3, 1906, a tropical cyclone was recognized. The islands of Hawaii, with Kauai as the notable exception, appear to be remarkably immune from direct hurricane hits. * July 1978: Hurricane Fico created 15 feet waves, felled trees and knocked out power across the islands. This number has ranged from zero, most recently as 1979, to as many as eleven in 1992 and 1994. systems in the South Pacific reverse or weaken. This article is reproduced with permission fromClimate Central. It ended up dropping 52 inches of rain, the second highest rainfall total from a tropical cyclone since 1950, behind only Hurricane Harvey's 60 inches on Texas in 2017. All the islands reported some surf damage along their southwest facing shores, and wind damage was widespread on Kauai. * August 1950: Hurricane Hiki passed north of the islands, bringing gale winds. The storm spurred counties to reevaluate building and Unlike the Atlantic Basin, July is the second most active month (45) in the central Pacific basin. sailed through the storm encountering, "black dark, heavy blinding rain, * August 1959: Hurricane Dot entered the Central Pacific as a Category 4 hurricane just south of Hawaii. Unlike the Atlantic Basin, July is the second most active month (45) in the central Pacific basin. During the winter and spring, Hawaii's waters average 77 degrees. The island of Kauai was especially hard hit by damaging winds. Drier, more stable air from the subtropical high to the northeast of Hawaii eventually inhibits thunderstorms from persisting and remaining clustered near the cyclone's center. * August 2003: Hurricane Jimena brought up to 10 inches of rain as it passed the Big Island. torrents The ocean surface temperature is usually near or below 27 C, a threshold for hurricane formation and survival, and wind shear that saps a storm's energy is common over the islands. from year to year, from 0 to a maximum of 16 in 2015. From 1950 through 2021, around 30 hurricanes have passed within 200 nautical miles of the Big Island, Maui, Honolulu or Kauai, according to NOAA's historical hurricane database. damage estimated at $250 million. It hit the island of Kauai as a Category 4 on September 11, killing six and causing $2 billion in damage. Iwa killed one person and did $250 million in damage, making it the second most damaging hurricane to ever hit Hawaii. Tropical storms and hurricanes are rare in the Hawaiian Islands, but 2014 is one of their most active years on record. From 1950 through 2017, only 14 hurricanes have passed within 200 nautical miles of the Big Island, Maui, Honolulu or Kauai, according to NOAA's historical hurricane database. In El Nio years, this idea changes some. The article was first published on August 7, 2014. Additionally, at total of 52 inches (1321 mm) of rain fell over 4 days in Kauai. Hawaii typically records four or five hurricanes each year, although as many as 11 have occurred, including during the 1992 and 1994 seasons. 'Iwa formed south of Hawai'i during On average, between four and five tropical cyclones are observed in the Central Pacific every year. Retro . 1980s dark On July 28, 2013, the storm appeared headed for a direct hit to the Big Island, home to Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa. Hurricanes need ocean waters of at least 80F to develop and maintain the convection engine at their core, so colder waters can shut them down. Damages from Dot cost no more than a few million dollars, and rainfall was relatively light; around 4 inches (100 mm). That's not to say. [50][51][52], Before Hurricane Iniki in 1992, a standard homeowner's insurance policy with extended coverage provided hurricane coverage. Two drownings on Oahu were attributed to rough surf caused by the hurricane. No doubt about that. Formal records were not kept before the 1950s. It moved across the islands, dropping considerable rainfall and causing about $500,000 of damage. * December 19021903: A low pressure system (known later as The Froc Cyclone) took a path similar to that of a tropical cyclone, passing through Kaulakahi Channel in late December 1902. This includes a few Category 4 eastern Pacific hurricanes that fizzled, such as Felicia (2009),Orlene (1992) and Raymond (1983). Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. The technical storage or access that is used exclusively for statistical purposes. Dot brought sustained winds of 81 mph with gusts to 103 mph to Kilauea Light. The storm slammed into Hawaii in September as a Category 4 hurricane and was blamed for six fatalities. Prior to that only two other hurricanes had reached landfall in Hawaii. The dissipation of storms is even more evident in a closer view map (from Wikipedia) of the Central North Pacific zone. Most tropical cyclones that reach the 50th state arrive from the east or south, but on occasion, they arrive from the southwest. Factors weakening Hawaii-bound tropical cyclones. * 1986 Estelle 2 The last one to do so was Category 4 Hurricane Douglas in July 2020, whose center came just 30 miles north of Oahu on July 26. * August 2008: The remnants of Hurricane Hernan brought moisture to the Big Island, causing cloud and shower activity. * September 1972: Hurricane Fernanda may have caused flash flooding near Waipio as it passed to the northeast. Flooding caused The map also shows how Hawai'i lies near the 27 C ocean surface temperature threshold in the warm month August and the wind shear resulting from surface tradewinds (green arrows) blowing in the opposite direction of the upper air winds (purple arrows). One person died. The key, at least climatologically speaking, is the direction of the storm's approach. Cooler sea-surface temperatures in the Pacific waters to the east of the Big Island of Hawaii keep the air somewhat cooler above it, increasing the stability of the atmosphere, making it less susceptible to forming and maintaining thunderstorms. one of the most severe ENSO years on record. to issue special hurricane insurance for homeowners. * October 1983: Hurricane Raymond took a path similar to Gils, but as a depression, causing no damage. Rainfall totals are expected to reach 5 to 8 inches across the islands, with some isolated pockets possibly seeing as much as 12 inches. It was also considered the first official hurricane in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands.The fourth tropical cyclone of the 1950 Pacific hurricane season, Hiki formed as a tropical depression to the southeast of Hawaii on August 12. "The wind commenced Chapter 11 Hurricanes 4 1971-2005 Tropical Cyclones in the Central Pacific5 Hurricanes Tropical Storms Tropical Depressions Total Total Number 48 57 48 153 Average Per Year 1.4 1.6 1.4 4.4 Percent of All Systems 31% 36% 33% Hurricane tracks around the Hawaiian Islands since 1949.6 Hurricanes are not the only type of storm to cause damage in coastal areas, but they are the Damage was in excess of $6 million. An example from the Big Island On average, four to five tropical cyclones occur in the central Pacific Ocean basin - between 140-180 degrees west longitude -each year, according toDr. Rick Knabb,Hurricane Expert at The Weather Channel and past director of the National Hurricane Center. Moderate surf of up to 6 feet affected the east and southeast shorelines on the Big Island. A brief summary of the three most significant hurricanes to affect Hawaii in modern times: was the strongest, deadliest, and most damaging hurricane to affect Hawaii since records began. 1970s Hawaii may be paradise, but like the Caribbean Sea, hurricanes are part of its history. Over land, maximum sustained winds exceeded 140 mph, gusting to 175 mph, While there are usually between four or five tropical cyclones in the central Pacific ocean each year, fewer than ten have gotten within 200 nautical miles of the islands since records began to be. Thanks for reading Scientific American. More than three dozen hurricanes, or tropical cyclones, have impacted the Hawaiian islands since 1950, causing at least 12 deaths. Virtually every system approaching Hawaii from the east since 1950 tracking at least as far north as the latitude of the Big Island of Hawaii eventually weakened to a tropical storm or depression by the time it reached the islands. But the state isnt always lucky, and has sustained serious damage from a number of named storms over the years. 68 mph (109 km/h) winds were recorded in Kauai. On Aug. 6, Dot began weakening, and at its landfall in Kauai, Dot was only a Category 1 hurricane. El Nio years are typically more active in the central Pacific. It moved across the islands, dropping considerable rainfall and causing about $500,000 of damage, before dissipating. widespread of conclusive identification of hurricanes did not began until the tracking However, as exemplified by Hurricane Lane, hurricanes, or tropical cyclones, rarely strike the Hawaiian islands directly. If it stays a hurricane, it will be the first to hit the Big Island head-on since records began in 1950, and could even be the first since a possible cyclone hit in 1872, said National Weather . Seeing dolphins! Most dangerous hurricanes come from the south. That rarity is a product of where Hawaii is located. highest frequency of tropical cyclones in the Central North Pacific zone occurs during El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) years. Miraculously, only six deaths were Wind shear (the change in wind speed and/or direction with height) is typically stronger near the Hawaiian islands, acting to displace thunderstorms from the cyclone's center. * January 1971: Although not having existed in the Central Pacific as a tropical cyclone, the extratropical low that was Tropical Storm Sarah in the West Pacific passed over Hawaii in mid January, causing high winds and heavy rain. * August 1938: A possible tropical cyclone produced heavy wind and rain across the state. A look at tropical cyclones that have impacted Hawaii over the years, 103rd Kamehameha Schools Song Contest: Na Mele Paniolo - Songs of the Hawaiian Cowboy, How to cope with difficult emotions in a healthy way, 'The Other Side of Paradise' with Lynn Kawano, visit the Hawaii News Now Hurricane Center, KHNLPUBLICFILE@HAWAIINEWSNOW.COM (808) 847-3246, KGMBPUBLICFILE@HAWAIINEWSNOW.COM (808) 847-3246, KFVEPUBLICFILE@HAWAIINEWSNOW.COM (808) 847-3246, KSIXPUBLICFILE@HAWAIINEWSNOW.COM (808) 847-3246, KOGGPUBLICFILE@HAWAIINEWSNOW.COM (808) 847-3246. As the moist air in the storm is pushed up Hawaiis volcanic peaks, it will cool and the water vapor in it will condense, adding to the rain the storm already produces. Why a Blizzard Is Hitting Southern California, How to Engineer Buildings That Withstand Earthquakes, Why the Earthquake in Turkey Was So Damaging and Deadly, Climate Change Has Influenced the Timing of Europe's Floods, Court Scuttles Rule Cutting Potent Greenhouse Gas, Wildfire Burns across (Formerly) Icy Greenland. Hawaii has been directly hit by hurricanes only three times since 1950, though the region has had 147 tropical cyclones over that time. * August 1958: On Aug. 7, a tropical storm seemed to rapidly appear directly off the coast of Hilo. * September 1992: Hurricane Iniki caused more damage than any other hurricane to affect Hawaii since records began. Satellite images of Hurricane Flossie's breakup when approaching Hawaii Island fueled this idea. How consistent is the temperature in Lahaina? 2010s * August 1994: Tropical Depression One-C passed just south of the islands, causing severe flooding in Hilo. Hurricane name Date 1/ Islands most affected Sustained Peak gusts Deaths Property damage . about 9 AM when it suddenly lulled into a calm fearfully in contrast with Hawaii Coalition Against Legalized Gambling, Hawaii's Partnership for Appropriate & Compassionate Care, Tropical storms and hurricanes are rare in the Hawaiian Islands, but 2014 is one of their most active years on record. Virtually every system approaching Hawaii from the east since 1950 tracking at least as far north as the latitude of the Big Island of Hawaii eventually weakened to a tropical storm or depression by the time it reached the islands. Most dangerous hurricanes come from the south. down our flume; uprooting large trees, and prostrating our cane fields. Cooler sea-surface temperatures in the Pacific waters to the east of the Big Island of Hawaii keep the air somewhat cooler above it, increasing the stability of the atmosphere, making it less susceptible to forming and maintaining thunderstorms. August is the peak month for tropical cyclones in the central Pacific basin, chalking up twice as many (74) as September (37) from 1971-2013, according to the Central Pacific Hurricane Center. More than three dozen hurricanes, or tropical cyclones, have impacted the Hawaiian islands since 1950, causing at least 12 deaths. Any south or southwest wind aloft would steer a hurricane toward the island chain. Tracks of hurricanes that have come within 200 nautical miles of the Big Island, Maui, Honolulu, and Kauai from 1950 through 2017. Hawaii's hurricane season is from June to November of every year, but just how much of a threat to Hawaii are hurricanes? Wind shear (the change in wind speed and/or direction with height) is typically stronger near the Hawaiian islands, acting to displace thunderstorms from the cyclone's center. 1950s. Historically, The technical storage or access is strictly necessary for the legitimate purpose of enabling the use of a specific service explicitly requested by the subscriber or user, or for the sole purpose of carrying out the transmission of a communication over an electronic communications network. I think were prepared as best we can be, Cantin said. Since 1949, the Hawaiian Islands have received a direct hit from just two hurricanes--Dot in 1959, and Iniki in 1992. track, demolishing Mr. Wright's mill Over 1400 homes were destroyed Hurricane Nina (1957) produced record winds in Honolulu. During these years, sea surface temperature tends to be higher than average near the Islands and wind shear diminishes. where, "quite suddenly the weather cleared and the wind dropped to calm. No Dot-related deaths were recorded. section of the storm, sweeping the island with 80 mph winds and causing Tracks of hurricanes that have come within 200 nautical miles of Hawaii from 1990-2021. Since records have been kept starting in 1950, there has not been a hurricane to hit the big island of Hawaii, though tropical storms are common. Intense rains over Oahu and Kauai caused flash floods on Kaukonahua Stream and the overflow of Lake Wilson at Wahiawa Dam. There are several reasons why this happens so often. When the bottom of a storm moves one way and the top moves the other, the system gets blown apart and weakens. * July 1994: Hurricane Emilia damaged trees and foliage while passing south of Hawaii. Another reason hurricanes miss Hawaii is the cool waters surrounding the islands. hurricane force wind, (and) sea increasing " before entering the eye * August 1972: Hurricane Diana dissipated a few miles off shore of the Big Island, dropping more than 10 inches of rain in some parts. Look at the fading tracks of hurricanes approaching from the east. About two-thirds of those systems drift westfrom the eastern Pacific basin. This list contains every tropical cyclone that had a somewhat notable effect on the State of Hawaii. Table 5.54-- MAJOR HURRICANES: 1950 TO 2020 Maximum recorded winds ashore (m.p.h.) If it stays a hurricane, it will be the first to hit the Big Island head-on since records began in 1950, and could even be the first since a possible cyclone hit in 1872, saidNational Weather Servicemeteorologist Michael Cantin. was the "Kohala Cyclone" of 1871. This is the reality of a meteorological rule of thumb. A sidewalk is ripped up and littered with downed palm trees after Hurricane Iniki slammed the island of Kauai, Hawaii in September, 1992. * July 1986: Waves caused by Hurricane Estelle caused $2 million in damage when they destroyed five houses and damaged several others. It's this high-pressure zone that keeps Hawaii's weather fairly consistent throughout the year. BROWSE BY TOPIC. either entering or forming in the Central North Pacific Zone between 140 and 180 west longitude has varied greatly One died from Hiki. Vintage home. Thanks for reading Scientific American. 1920s. Without a subpoena, voluntary compliance on the part of your Internet Service Provider, or additional records from a third party, information stored or retrieved for this purpose alone cannot usually be used to identify you. The last time a hurricane was bearing down on the Hawaiian Islands, Steven Spielberg was on Kauai finishing filming of the now iconic movie Jurassic Park when Hurricane Iniki hit the island as a Category 4 storm. and Tropical Storm Iselle in 2014became only the second tropical storm, and the strongest, to landfall on the Big Island dating to 1950. Iwa was the most damaging hurricane to hit Hawaii until Hurricane Iniki took over the title 10 years later. * July 1982: Hurricane Daniel passed through the islands as a tropical depression, causing little if any damage. over O'ahu severe enough to knock out power in Honolulu for several hours Next. forming in the East Pacific, traveling almost parallel to the Island chain, Jonathan Belles, Jon Erdman and Linda Lam, Dallas Area Storms Cause Power Transformer To Explode, Rockslide In Californias Santa Monica Mountains. Due to a. The main thing is that Hawaii is kind of a sweet spot in terms of the weather, Cantin told Climate Central. Again, that track was initially well south of Hawaii before it curled north. Hurricanes and tropical storms are normally steered clear of the Hawaiian Islands by a high pressure feature that is typically parked to the northeast of the islands and keeps the weather consistent throughout the year. The storm supposedly tracked northward, passing through the. A bright starlight sky overhead gave enough light to see the mountains, Hawaii's official hurricane season runs from June to November, and an average season generally sees three to five hurricanes in the Central Pacific. Hawaii lies in the central Pacific, where about four or five tropical cyclones appear each year, although as many as fifteen have occurred, such as in the 2015 season; rarely do these storms actually affect Hawaii. "Hurricane Iniki caused nearly $3 billion in damage in Hawaii back in September 1992, which would . One might think that hurricanes are severe threats to the Hawaiian islands, as many islands found in the middle of the Pacific are at high risk of being hit by hurricanes. On average, four to five tropical cyclones occur in the central Pacific Ocean basin - between 140-180 degrees west longitude -each year, according toDr. Rick Knabb,Hurricane Expert at The Weather Channel and past director of the National Hurricane Center. * 1982 Iwa 1, Find out more: Plantation manager, D.D. In the northern hemisphere tropical cyclone and hurricane track map below, you can see how these storms tend to stay south of the Hawai'i (red circle) or dissipate as they move toward the Islands. Persons who know a warrant is, The monthly test of the all-hazard Statewide Outdoor Warning Siren System, coordinated with the test of the Live Audio Broadcast. * September 1843: The earliest report of a tropical cyclone that could have affected Hawaii was made in 1843. Sea-surface temperatures are typically warmer the further south you get in the northern Pacific, which means a tropical cyclone moving toward Hawaii from the south would have a better chance of surviving to the islands. * August 1988: Hurricane Uleki approached the state. The remnants of Kanoa brought welcomed rain. 'Iwa carried a broad reach, producing conditions Hurricane name Date 1/ Islands most affected: Sustained. The depression then crossed over into the central Pacific Ocean basin to the west of 140W longitude where it became a tropical storm and eventually a powerful hurricane. Hurricane Estelle (1986) produced very high surf on Hawaii and Maui and floods on Oahu. Old movies. One notion is that Hawaii's volcanic peaks slow down or divert storms. Dot: August 1959. Most years, the water is too coolfor most tropical systems to arrive from the due east. The technical storage or access is required to create user profiles to send advertising, or to track the user on a website or across several websites for similar marketing purposes. Classic cars. Hurricanes hit Hawaii less frequently because of where the islands are located in the Pacific Ocean. * July 1994: The remnants of Tropical Storm Fabio brought heavy showers to Big Island and Oahu. "Hurricane Iniki caused nearly $3 billion in damage in Hawaii back in September 1992, which . tornado swept through the district, spreading desolation and ruin in its Virtually all hurricanes near the Hawaiian Islands since 1949 have approached from the southeast, south or southwest. heavily damaged structures along the south coast. further damage to fields of pineapple and other crops. July 1957: Hurricane Kanoa, after taking a long journey across the eastern Pacific, became a non-tropical circulation a few miles east of Hawaii. One such hurricane formed in an El Nio year: 1992. passing just to the west of Kaua'i. Damage was Finally, if you've ever visited Maui, you're sure to have noticed the wind. As noted in Chapter 6, environmental conditions in the Hawai'i region offer some protection from powerful storms. Tropical cyclone records were not kept before the 1950s. about 6 o'clock A.M. from the North, and rapidly rotating to the West and August 1950: Hurricane Hiki passed north of the islands, bringing gale winds. * July 1993: Hurricane Eugene dropped valuable rain on the state as it dissipated. Lahaina Harbor, Loading Dock Main Booth [1] Extratropical cyclones are also common, causing considerable damage; they are known as Kona storms, but are not included in counts of hurricanes. Iwa killed one person and did $250 million in damage, making it the second most damaging hurricane to ever hit Hawaii. The last time Hawaii was hit with a tropical storm or hurricane was in 1992, when Hurricane Iniki killed six people and destroyed more than 1,400 homes in Kauai, said Eric Lau, meteorologist for . Usually that ridge of high pressure protects the islands.. Drier, more stable air from the subtropical high to the northeast of Hawaii eventually inhibits thunderstorms from persisting and remaining clustered near the cyclone's center. Two people were injured by lightning. January 25, 2004: A brief F0 tornado touched down . during the passage of the hurricane and another 12,000 damaged. Surf reached 10 feet along the Puna and Kau shorelines. This story does not necessarily represent the position of our parent company, IBM. It hit Kauai as a Category 4 on Sept. 11. No Dot-related deaths were recorded. government codes, with Kaua'i opting for higher standards of construction by requiring major agricultural damage, particularly to macadamia orchards. Hurricane expertMichael Lowrysays that dating to 1950, there is a 13 percent increase in the chance of a named storm to track within 100 miles of the Hawaii islands during an El Nio year (35 percent chance) than a neutral year (22 percent chance). Hurricanes approaching from the south represent the biggest danger to the islands, due to the warmer waters and more unstable air present to the south. Just use the promocode VIP20 after clicking on this link. Nina set a record for the highest wind gust ever recorded in Honolulu: 82 miles per hour. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); We use cookies to optimize our website and our service. building and a large portion of the thatched houses in the district; throwing This is the reality of a meteorological rule of thumb. Part of the reason this doesn't happen that often is just geography. Baldwin Although it was only a Category 1 storm, it passed just miles west of Kauai, moving at a speed of nearly 50 miles per hour (80 km/h). 1960s Minor power outages and rain made traffic conditions hazardous. There haven't been enough hurricanes and tropical storms since about 1950 when good recordkeeping started for a statistically significant trend, Lin said. It remains the second costliest East/Central Pacific hurricane on record, only behind Hurricane Paul in 1982. It's quite rare to have two storms right behind each other . According to the NOAA historical hurricane database, from 1950 - 2017, only 14 hurricanes have ever passed within 200 miles of Hawaii. * August 2009: The remnants of Hurricane Felicia brought light rainfall to the northern islands. On average, the coldest month is January, with high temperatures of 82 and average lows of 64 with 3 days of rain. Copyright 2020 Hawaii News Now. A gust of 53 miles per hour was recorded at South Point. was one of Hawaii's most damaging hurricanes. Shoreline roads on all islands were damaged and some homes flooded. * September 2005: The remnants of Hurricane Kenneth brought locally heavy rainfall, with up to 12 inches falling on the Big Island. The direct hit on the Big Island does present an interesting scientific prospect, in terms of monitoring how much the islands topography tears apart the storm. Hurricanes approaching from the east typically fall apart before they reach Hawaii due to the cool waters and dry air that lie to the east of the islands. [49] Despite this data, FEMA classified all of Hawaii as being in a "Wind-Borne Debris Region". by Dr Jeff Masters, Weather Underground, October 16, 2014 (excerpt). By far the worst storm on record to hit Hawaii was Hurricane Iniki, which was a 145 mph Category 4 hurricane that crossed the island of Kauai on Sept. 10-11, 1992. A brief summary of the three most significant hurricanes to affect Hawaii in modern times: September 1992: Hurricane Iniki was the strongest, deadliest, and most damaging hurricane to affect Hawaii since records began. waters Hurricane Dot arrived in 1959 and an unnamed storm occurred in 1871. The storm wobbled northward toward the Islands, finally veering so extensive, it caused an insurance crisis in Hawai'i, prompting the State Vintage TV. Image credit: NOAA/CSC. The Pacific Ocean is over 62 million square miles and covers over 30% of the earth. * August 1988: Tropical Storm Gilma moved through the island chain as a depression, dropping locally heavy rainfall of up to 4 inches in some places. Nina set a record for the highest wind gust ever recorded in Honolulu: 82 miles per hour (132 km/h). On the 6th, Dot began weakening and at its landfall in Kauai, Dot was only category one.

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